Wattle & Daub: Craft, Conservation & Wiltshire Case Study
Contents
3.6 Daub
4.1 Soils
4.1.3 Strength
4.2 Dung
4.2.2 Lignin
4.2.3 Urine
4.3 Fibre
5.4.2 Renewal

Title Page Previous | Conclusion

7 Conclusion

The study found that wattle and daub was a craft extremely resilient to the evolving pattern of timber construction, possibly more so that any other building material or technique. Examination of previous works showed the most widespread form in England was a woven wattle covered with a plain daub, practiced since the Iron Age and prevailing to the end of the Tudor period, after which it suffered a slow demise. The infill often comprised oak staves and hazel withies with daub routinely consisting of soil, dung and fibre. Frames of close-studding demanded the adaptation of the wattle to suit, such as the introduction of lath, and further changes were required for braces and decorative framing. However, during the course of the research it was established that the craft is described better by its diversity than by its regularity: the complexity in categorising and describing this variety was an underestimated aspect of the study. For example, illustrating the variations using geographical distribution maps might have assisted the reader.

The forms of naïve decoration had been described thoroughly by the main works: raised pargetting, incised work, and internal wall painting. However, little attention had been given to describing the applicability of each form to those areas of the country less renowned for timber building yet still rich in surviving buildings. This topic remains worthy of future examination.

The examination of material characteristics was found to provide a deeper insight into explaining the choice of materials, historically and with regards to conservation work. Soil mechanics were used to demonstrate how clayey soils were chosen for daub to provide a workable and strong fabric. However, shrinking clay invariably caused cracking and it was shown how the inclusion of fibre acted as reinforcement as well as dispersing large cracks within the daub. The reasoning behind the ubiquitous specification of dung was more illusive. Several hypotheses had been documented as to the beneficial properties, yet little supporting evidence was provided to substantiate them.
A study of the ruminant digestive system resulted in the development of a new hypothesis: that the indigestible lignin in cattle feed, originating from plant cell walls and passed into the faeces, improves the stability and workability of a daub. However, as a field unfamiliar to the author, it is acknowledged that the treatment of this topic was somewhat crude and so remains an area requiring further research. In addition, since access to and handling of cow dung is being increasing controlled by legislation, its continuing use in conservation work is being threatened. It is therefore becoming increasingly urgent to verify the reasons for its inclusion and whether modern alternatives exist.

It was found that discussion of the values and the principles of conservation specific to wattle and daub is not well attended to by existing works. A description in terms of patina, decay and age-value was therefore defined. In association with these values, it was shown how UK legislation operates to encourage the retention of historic wattle and daub. Within this framework, principles for conservation were established and causes of decay and methods of repair explored. The action of absorbed water was noted to be the singly most damaging cause.  It was illustrated how most wattle and daub can be conserved using carefully chosen traditional methods and thereby demonstrating that replacement with other infill material is usually unjustified.

The Wiltshire case study showed a great diversity of methods was used in the county. It revealed previously undocumented variations such as a method that enables withies to be woven using only two staves and a robust 14th century daub that contained no fibre. Most panels were based on hazel withy woven around oak staves. A frequent solution for placing staves within braced panels or within trusses was to simply nail them to the soffits of the sloping timber. Further work is required to establish the extent to which Chestnut was used, especially in the southern part of the county.
Wiltshire daubs were found to be clayey sands and calcareous, due to either the use of chalk or the addition of slaked lime. The soils in proximity to the building or within easy carting distance were used. There was no evidence of long-distance transportation of earths.
Examples of decoration were minimal. However, the three examples, from 14th, 15th and 17th centuries, were all of the same style and so it is reasonable to conclude that that sparrow-pricking was probably common in the region.
All aspects of the case study were limited primarily by the scarcity of existing and exposed work. This illustrates the need for ongoing and systematic recording. Adopting the recording template developed for this study, or a similar tool, would help integrate data from disparate sources and so assist in identification of regional variation.
Through this investigation, the following practical observations for conservation work in Wiltshire were identified:
  1. Wattle and daub repairs should aim to use only materials from the vicinity of the building.
  2. Care is needed to avoid incorrectly identifying incised daub decoration as keying for a plaster top coat.
  3. Staves may be nailed or screwed to the soffits of the frame where access is limited, as long as vibration will not damage historic daub.
  4. The most durable of Wiltshire’s calcareous daubs tend to have a small proportion of gravel (0-10%).
  5. Strength of a daub may be improved without causing cracking problems, by increasing the clay content up to 19% (or above, subject to further research).
This study demonstrates the current inadequacy of professional knowledge within the conservation industry and highlights the lack of interest in one of the most historically widespread building techniques.  If nothing else, it has been shown that many a conservation professional concerned with timber framed construction is missing out on an essentially unexplored subject in which further research is likely to be very rewarding. One might say, “If you don’t look, you don’t know what you’re missing”. If the current custodians of historic buildings incorporating wattle and daub fail to take an interest then we will leave nothing of this tradition for future generations.


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Appendix 1: The Composition of Cow Dung
Cow dung is described by the study of ruminant anatomy and the nutrition of cattle. Ruminants such as cattle, horses, sheep and goats are herbivores able to digest plant material and are often seen chewing which forms part of the digestion process [Figure 60].
Figure 60. Ruminant digestive system.
The four stomachs of the cow include the reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasums. The digestion of plant cells starts in the rumen, where microorganisms break down the feed by fermentation. These microorganisms eventually pass through the gut and are expelled, mainly dead, in the faeces.[132] The reticulum works to sort the contents of the rumen, passing on digested feed to the third stomach. The stems of plants and grasses contain fibre for rigidity and are composed of complex sugars such as cellulose and hemicellulose. These are mostly digestible, but cells walls also contain lignin, mainly insoluble, that is passed into the faeces.
The omasum recovers minerals and water and feeds these back into the rumen. The abomasums is similar to the stomach of non-ruminants in that it contains a strong acid and digestive enzymes. The small intestine secretes digestive enzymes for the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipid and also absorbs some water, minerals and products of digestion (glucose, amino acids and fatty acids). The large intestine absorbs water and contains a small quantity of microbes that ferments the unabsorbed products of digestion. The remains are formed into faeces.[133]

Figure 61. Composition of cow faeces.
The main constituents of faeces are metabolic excretions (from living tissue) and undigested diet. The majority of these excretions include microbial debris (from microorganisms within the rumen and includes insoluble and soluble nitrogenous matter) and endogenous secretions (from the body of the cow) that include salts, sloughing of animal cells and mucus. The insoluble nitrogenous matter comprises cellulose and lignin that originate from the cell walls of the plants [Figure [134]].134

Appendix 2: Template for the Recording of Wattle and Daub
Recording Sheet Reference Number: ________________
Recorded By: ___________________________
House name and address:
Location in Building of Recorded Panels [sketch]
O.S. Grid Ref: _____________________
Frame Type
cruck
post and truss
box-frame


Approx. date of construction: _______________
Recorded panel type (s):



Basic
Close Studding
96
Tension bracing
Arch bracing
Scissor bracing
Arch tension bracing
Small framing
Parallel bracing
Close panelling
Truss partition
Ornamental panelling
Panel Location:     Internal (partition)            External  

Comments
Plaster Top Coat
Thickness (approx): ______mm
Description:


Type:   Lime-Sand       Daub
Decoration: (e.g. colour-wash, interior wall-painting, scratch pattern, pargetting): ___________
Daub
Fibre Type:
Straw   Hay  Animal Hair
Description (In-Situ):

Sample Lab. Analysis?
Yes , Ref. Number: ________
No  
Owner’s or custodian’s description of subsoil:
Wattle
Type:
Lath         Withy
Material:   ________________
(e.g. hazel)

Withies debarked?
Yes         No      Partly
Withy ends halved?
Yes         No        Some
Withies split? (tick multiple):     Whole (round)     Halved      Quartered
Orientation
Vertical  
Horizontal  
Diagonal
Diameter (mm)
Min.   __________
Max.  __________
Avg.  ___________
97
Staves
Number of Staves:
0    3     4      other: ___
Stave Type:
Poles (round)         Riven

Shape (x-section), if riven:      End Staves:
     
                                           Central Staves:
Width: _____
Depth: _____
Distance between post and first stave: ______
Material: ____________________
Stave bottoms
[sketch]:
Stave tops
[sketch]:
Timber Frame
Soffit stave holes:
augered hole [a]
augered mortice [b]
V-mortice [c]
chiselled mortice [d]
Other: _______________






V-Grooves for withy/lath ends?           Yes         No
Bottom V-groove:                    Continuous     Other: ________________

Laboratory Analysis of Daub
Sheet Ref. Number: ____________
Panel Recording Sheet Ref: Number: ________
Visual Inspection [Description of sample, 1x and 10x magnification, colour, cracking, additives, particles, breaking strength]:[135]
Visual Inspection of Disaggregated Sample [10x magnification]:
Sedimentation Analysis
Water (g): _______
Volume (ml)
Fraction (%)
Organic:


Clay:


Silt:
98



Sand/Gravel:


Sieve analysis

Weight (g)
Fraction (%)
Total:


Passing 4.0mm sieve:


Passing 2.0mm sieve:


Passing 500μm sieve:


Passing 250μm sieve:


Passing 125μm sieve:


Passing 63μm sieve:


Lime test [10% HCl] Effervescence: None (<1% CaCO3 ) Visible (>1% CaCO3)      Violent (>20% CaCO3)  
Plasticity [Hand Test results:]
Summary:

Appendix 3: List of Suppliers
The most sustainable approach to the supply of woodland products is to uphold the tradition of local coppicing. Staves, withies and riven lath may be purchased from a woodman or, having sought prior permission from the landowner, hazel is easily coppiced by the conservator from local woodland and hedgerows. Coppice products are also available from conservation suppliers, but it is important that withies and lath are supplied green so to be sufficiently pliant.  Local earths should always be used where suitable graded, thereby continuing the tradition and avoiding unnecessary transportation. The use of pre-mixed daub should be limited to those few situations where local material is no longer accessible, such as where valuable ornamental gardens now cover the whole site. The most sustainable and traditional source for fibre and dung is a local farm.
Tools required for the conversion of wood and the preparation of daub are all available from general hardware suppliers or specialist conservation suppliers, but with one exception: the spar hook. They can no longer be purchased new, but can occasionally be located second-hand. Alternatively, a billhook can be used, but its thicker blade makes controlling the split of narrow withies more taxing.

Some materials and equipment may need to be bought in, such as from the sample of suppliers shown below.


Tools

Spar hooks, billhooks, cob-picks; axes and froes with high quality steels:
Pennyfarthing Tools Ltd
26, Pennyfarthing Street
Salisbury
SP1 1HJ
http://www.pennyfarthingtools.co.uk
The Old Tool Store
The Red Lion Inn
East Kirkby
Spilsby
PE23 4BX
http://www.oldtools.free-online.co.uk


Also online auctions, e.g. http://www.ebay.co.uk
Test sieves are readily available in the UK conforming to BS 410-1:2000. However, the cost of these certified sieves may be prohibitive where only occasional use is anticipated. As an alternative, a set of economy sieves may be purchased, presently available only from U.S. manufacturers and distributors.  These conform to U.S. ASTM standard mesh sizes, but relate to equivalent sizes in European and British standards. Appendix 6 provides a means of conversion between standards.
Endecotts Ltd (Manufactuerer).
9, Lombard Road
London
SW19 3TZ
http://www.endecotts.com
A. Daigger & Co. (International distributor)
620 Lakeview Parkway
Vernon Hills, IL 60061
U.S.A.
http://www.daigger.com


Glenammer Engineering Ltd
Glenammer
Dalrymple
Ayrshire
KA6 6AP
http://www.glenammer.com
Hubbard Scientific (Manufacturer).
401 W. Hickory Street
P.O. Box 2121
Fort Collins, CO 80522
U.S.A.
http://www.hubbardscientific.com


Ready-mix Daub
Old House Store
Hampstead Farm
Binfield Heath
Henley-on-Thames
RG9 4LG
Chalk Down Lime Ltd
102, Fairlight Road
Hastings
TN35 5EL


Riven Lath
Carpenter Oak and Woodland Co. Ltd
Hall Farm
Thickwood Lane
Colerne
Chippenham
Wiltshire
SN14 8BE
Mike Wye & Associates
Buckland Filleigh Sawmills
Beaworthy
Devon
EX21 5RN
Coyle Timber Products Ltd.
Bassett Farm
Claverton
Bath
BA2 7BJ
The Lime Centre
Long Barn
Morestead
Winchester
SO21 1LZ
http://www.thelimecentre.co.uk/
Chalk Down Lime
Old House Store



Animal Hair
Potmolen Paint
27, Woodcock Industrial Estate
Woodcock Road
Warminster
BA12 9DX
Chalk Down Lime

The Lime Centre

Old House Store

Mike Wye & Associates



Aggregates
Local builders’ merchants should be able to help locate local sources of aggregate. Sharp sand for daubs may be termed ‘grit sand’ or ‘concreting sand’ but must be washed (in case of salt) and selected on the basis of sharpness and grading.

A catalogue of national aggregates that are particularly suited for conservation work is provided by Chapman and Fidler (2000).

The Lime Centre (address as above) also supplies a small selection of suitable aggregates.


Infill Upgrade Insulation
Green Building Store
Huddersfield Road
Meltham
Holmfirth
HD9 4NJ
http://greenbuildingstore.co.uk
Natural Building Technologies Ltd
The Hangar
Worminghall Road
Oakley
HP18 9UL
http://naturalbuildingproductscouk.ntitemp.com

Ty-Mawr Lime Ltd
Ty-Mawr Farm
Llangasty
Brecon
Powys
LD3 7PJ
http://www.lime.org.uk/




Other suppliers exist. Inclusion does not indicate recommendation.
Appendix 4: Supplementary Detail from Wiltshire Buildings Survey
Table 5. Details of Wiltshire buildings surveyed.
Building location
Name/Address
Frame type
date of construction
Extent of recording
All Cannings
Burden’s Cottage
Post and Truss
c.1600 + later
.
All Cannings
White Rose Cottage
Post and truss
?17th
Wattle and daub section museum object
Alton Barnes
Maslen’s Farm
cruck
Late 14th
Full, excluding frame
Ashton Keynes
Cocks Thatch
Post and truss
Late 17th
Daub and withy samples, written building survey
Bratton
East Marsh Farm
Post and truss
c.1500.
Daub sample and photographs
Colerne
Daubeney’s
Cruck
c.1270 + late 14th
Photographs and written description
Collingbourne Kingston
Norrie Cottage
Cruck
c.1500
Photographs and sample
Devizes
51, Long Street
Post and truss
?17th
Lath and plaster sample, possibly earthen; photographs
East Kennet
Orchard Farm
Post and truss
16th
Wattle sample only
Keevil
Little Talboys
Cruck
? 14th
section of wattle and daub excluding staves and frame
Langley Burrell
Langley Green House
Cruck
? 15th
Photographs
102
Potterne
10, Coxhill Lane
Cruck
Early 16th - early 17th
Photographs (chimney)
Potterne
Porch House
Post and Truss
15th
Full
Potterne
The Crofts
Post and Truss
Late 17th
Inspection from distance
Rushall
The Old House
Post and truss
Late 16th / early 17th
Photographs
Salisbury
4, Guilder Lane
Post and Truss
?15th
Inspection from distance
Salisbury
66, St. Anne St.
Post and Truss
c.1480
Full
Salisbury
Cloisters (formerly The Bell and Crown)
Post and Truss
C14th
Panel excluding daub
Salisbury
Retreat Inn, Milford St. (Room No. 4)
Post and Truss
15th
Full, excluding frame
Salisbury
The King’s House (‘Vestibule’)
Post + truss
c.1600
Panel excluding daub
Salisbury
Watson’s, Queen St. (House of John A’ Port)
Post and Truss
1425
Full
Salisbury
Watson’s, Queen St.  (William Russel’s House)
Post and Truss
1306
Full
Stanton St. Bernard
Liburnum Cottage
Post and Truss
Early/mid 17th
Full
Steeple Ashton
3, Church St.
Box-frame
Mid 16th + 17th
description and daub sample
Tilshead
Primrose Cottage
Post and Truss
?
Frame and staves only
Urchfont
Church Farmhouse
cruck
c.1450 + later
Full
Warminster
10, Vicarage St.
Post and truss
?
Photographs


Figure 62. Dimensions of withies.
Appendix 5: Analyses of Wiltshire Daubs
The analysis of daub samples was carried out in accordance with the procedure described in Section 5.4.2. However, BS1377-2:1990 recommends that the plot of ‘cumulative percent passing’ versus particle size should be completed using an s-curve to join the data points. For several daub samples, such a curve was not a good fit. This could be expected if the soils had been modified (e.g. by adding aggregate or clay) during construction. Graphically, adding aggregate may shift one or more data points. A smoothed line was therefore chosen instead of an s-curve so that these effects were appropriately preserved.
Eight samples were analysed, the results of which are summarised below.
a. Church Farmhouse
b. The Crofts
c. Norrie Cottage
d. 3 Church Street
e. Watson’s – William Russel’s House
f. 66 St. Anne Street
g. Watson’s – House of John A Port

Figure 63. Daub particle size distribution graphs.

Figure 64. Plots a-g of Figure 63 combined for comparison.



Church Farmhouse, Urchfont
The daub was a creamy-beige with very few cracks. It was extremely difficult to break by hand. There was no sign of chalk or lime particles and the only fibre visible was straw of 10-27mm lengths. Water used in the sedimentation test was turned a browny-orange colour. Hydrochloric acid caused violent effervescing, indicating a significant quantity of calcium carbonate. The plasticity test showed long threads of less than 2mm diameter could easily be rolled. When slightly dried so to break at 3mm, a thread failed only by applying a notable force, suggesting it was moderately plastic.
Sieve and sedimentation analysis showed the daub to be a clayey SAND, lacking any gravel, with straw, hay and evidence of dung [Figure 63a].

The underlying soil is Upper Greensand (containing calcareous rock), with Lower Chalk and Gault Clay both available within approximately 0.5km of the building.


The Crofts, Potterne
The daub was a pale creamy-grey with a large degree of cracking. The daub was friable and so easily crumbled by hand. A significant amount of straw and hay was visible. Within the fines was some large aggregate up to 22mm diameter. Disaggregating revealed straw in lengths up to 70mm and many shorter lengths, plus hay, seedpods and a little animal hair. Larger aggregate was found to be cream coloured and could be scratched with the fingernail, albeit it with difficulty. Microscope inspection showed it to have a grainy structure, possibly oolites. It was identified as probably being a soft limestone.  Water was turned greeny-yellow. Sieve and sedimentation analysis showed the daub was heavily fibred (5% by volume) with evidence of dung [Figure 63b]. Hydrochloric acid showed a large quantity of Calcium Carbonate to be present.
A moistened sample was easily rolled into threats of less than 2mm. When a fibreless sample was made sufficiently dry to break at approximately 3mm it was found to initially stretch and required notable force to cause failure. It was therefore determined to be very plastic (‘ very clayey’).
It was concluded that the daub comprised a very clayey gravelly SAND, well-graded and mixed with lime or crushed chalk, plus straw, hay and a little animal hair.

The underlying soil is known to be Gault Clay and sandy silt alluvium. The building is sited very close to a source of Upper Greensand and a source of Lower Chalk is available within 2km.


Norrie Cottage, Collingbourne Kingston
The daub was a creamy colour, with little cracking and significant amounts of visible straw but no sign of hair or hair. Larger aggregate (2-5mm) was embedded within the surface. The daub was easily crumbled by hand.
After disaggregation, a little animal hair became apparent, together with two pieces of flint, the largest being 12mm diameter.
Particle analysis showed the daub to be well-graded, with evidence of dung and a large quantity of straw, mainly in lengths of 10-15mm [Figure 63c]. Water was turned pale greeny-yellow/cream.
Hydrochloric acid caused violent effervescing.
Long threads of moistened daub were easily rolled to diameters of less than 2mm. 3mm threads broke only with moderate force – clayey.
The daub was concluded to be a clayey sandy fine GRAVEL. It was well-graded, possibly chalk, was highly fibred using straw and had a little hair and probably had only a small proportion of dung.

Norrie Cottage lies on River and Valley Gravel and Middle Chalk but has nearby areas of Lower Chalk, Upper Chalk and Clay-with-Flint (superficial deposits).


No. 3, Church Street, Steeple Ashton
The daub was a light orangey-brown with patches of brighter orange and had small particles (<500um) visible in the surface. Straw and hay were visible. The daub was difficult to break by hand: only larger lumps could be broken.
Inspection of the disaggregated sample showed hair fibres bound within the white particles and so they were concluded to be lime. The test for CaCO3 supported this, showing violent effervescing.
Sedimentation showed little evidence of dung. The water was turned a mid-brown colour. Particle analysis showed the daub to be well-graded  [Figure 63d]. A moistened sample retained its orangey-brown appearance and felt sticky. 3mm threads were easily formed and were tough.  
The daub was concluded to be a clayey SAND. It was well-graded with lime, straw and hay. There was little evidence  that any significant amount of dung had been incorporated.

Steeple Ashton lies on Corallian Beds (oolitic limestones, sands, sandstones and some iron stone) and situated close to Oxford Clay which often weathers to a deep brown.


Watson’s (William Russel’s House), Queen St., Salisbury
The daub sample was reddish-brown, with patches of dark brown. Large pale aggregate was visible. The daub was of moderate strength, broken by hand using moderate force. Inspection of the disaggregated sample showed the larger particles were flint (up to 15mm) with smaller particles of chalk (mainly 1-2mm). No fibre was visible. The daub was noted to effervesce violently with hydrochloric acid solution, causing pitting and so confirming areas of high CaCO3 content as chalk. Sieve and sedimentation analysis showed the daub to be a very clayey fine SAND with chalk and flint, but poorly graded [Figure 63e]. The organic matter consisted entirely of the residue of dung and it was therefore confirmed that the daub had no fibre.

It was not possibly to determine if the daub was extracted from underlying soils due to the complexity of the soils in the city area. Available data, taken primarily from the Ordnance Survey geological maps, showed the soils are most likely to comprise of Valley Gravel or Brickearth, but Alluvium, Plateau Gravel and Lower Chalk are also close by.[136] There are also nearby chalk ‘pipes’ filled with orange-brown plateau gravel.[137]


66 St. Anne Street, Salisbury
The daub was light brown with a rough surface. Rounded white particles of 1-5mm diameter were visible. The sample was easily broken by hand. The particles were confirmed to be chalk by further visual inspection and by the hydrochloric acid test. Straw fibres were visible, with lengths up to 55mm. The daub was of low plasticity, being difficult to roll into a thread of less than 15mm without crumbling. The sedimentation test left the water stained orange with evidence of dung, straw and hay forming the organic matter. The analysis showed the daub to be a clayey SAND with chalk, straw, some hay and dung [Figure 63f].

It was not possible to evaluate how the daub corresponded to the underlying soils due to the complexity of the local geology (alluvium, valley gravel, chalk, river terrace deposits, plateau gravel).

Watson’s (House of John A Port), Salisbury
The daub was a creamy-beige with a rough and open surface. Very few fibres were visible, limited to a few lengths of hay (7-12mm) and animal hairs. The sample was friable and so was easy to break by hand. After disaggregating, visual inspection found that the course sand and gravel particles appeared to be mainly chalk (up to 14mm). Hydrochloric acid confirmed the presence of chalk. The sample also included a single piece of red clay (10mm), possibly being a fragment of fired brick or tile.
Sieving and sedimentation showed short straw had been incorporated but were only in lengths up to 4mm [Figure 63g]. Very little fibre was noted. The water was turned a greeny-brown with evidence of dung.
Rolling a thread of moist daub was difficult: it was cohesive, but a minimum diameter of 15mm was reached before it would fracture. The daub was bordering only clayey and silty.
The daub was a gravelly SAND of low plasticity. Much of the aggregate was chalk with a small but undetermined proportion of brick, with little fibre comprising hay and short fragments of straw.

The soils in this part of Salisbury may include alluvium, valley gravels, chalk and river terrace deposits, as discussed above.


Laburnum Cottage, Stanton St. Bernard.
A visual inspection was made of the daub but the sample was of insufficient mass to perform a full analysis. It was light grey with white particles (1-2mm) and could be broken by hand using moderate force. Further inspection showed two red 2mm particles, possibly fired clay but representing a negligible proportion of the aggregate. Straw of up to 30mm was observed. The owner described the soil as brown clay on chalk which is reflected by geological surveys. In addition, maps show areas of Upper Greensand and Clay-with-flint lie within 1km of the site. However, it is likely the clayey chalk underlying Stanton St. Bernard was the source of the observed daub.

Appendix 6: Sieve Mesh Conversion
Table 6. Sieve comparison table.
ISO 565:1987
DIN 4188:1977
US Std/ASTM E-11-1987
Tyler®
BS 410:1986
mm
mm
US Mesh
Mesh
Equivalent BS Mesh
 
 
Inch
Inch
 
 
 
3" .
 
 
 
 
2".
 
 
26,5
25
1.06"
1.05".
 
25
22,4
1"
 
 
22,4
20
7/8"
0.883"
 
19
18
3/4"
0.742"
 
16
16
5/8"
0.624"
 
13,2
14
0.530"
 
 
12,5
12,5
1/2 "
 
 
11,2
11,2
7/16"
0.441"
 
9,5
10
3/8"
0.371"
 
 
9
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mesh
 
8
8
5/16"
2.5
 
6,7
7,1
0.265"
3
 
6,3
6,3
1/4"
 
 
 
 
Mesh  #
 
 
5,6
5,6
3.5
3
4,75
5
4
 
 
4,5
 
 
 
4
4
5
5
4
3,35
3,55
6
 
5
 
3,15
 
 
 
2,8
2,8
7
 
6
2,36
2,5
8
8
7
 
2,24
 
 
 
2
2
10
 
8
1,7
1,8
12
10
10
 
1,6
 
 
 
1,4
1,4
14
12
12
1,18
1,25
16
14
14
 
1,12
 
 
 
1
1,0
18
16
16
Microns (µm)
Microns (µm)
 
 
 
850
900
 
 
18
 
800
20
20
 
710
710
25
24
22
 
630
 
 
 
600
 
30
28
25
 
560
 
 
 
500
500
35
32
30
 
450
 
 
 
425
430
40
35
36
 
400
 
 
 
355
355
45
42
44
 
315
 
 
 
300
 
50
48
52
 
280
 
 
 
250
250
60
60
60
212
224
70
65
72
 
200
 
 
 
180
180
80
80
85
 
160
 
 
 
150
 
100
 
100
 
140
 
 
 
125
125
120
115
120
106
112
140
150
150
 
100
 
 
 
90
90
170
170
170
 
80
 
 
 
75
 
200
200
200
 
71
 
 
 
63
63
230
250
240
53
56
270
270
300
 
50
 
 
 
45
45
325
325
350
38
40
400
400
400
 
36
 
 
 
32
32
450
450
440
25
25
500
500
 
20
20
635
635
 
16
16
 
 
 
10
10
 


Source: International Starch Institute (1999).



[132] Hungate (1966), pp.1-7.
[133] Wattiaux and Howard (2000).
[134] Van Soest (1982), p.39 and p.47.
[135] See BS 5930:1999, pp.113-121.
[136] Ordnance Survey (1903).
[137] Geddes (2000).